Fig. 2
Test infant formula influences fecal metabolic profiles at 3 months of age. A Available fecal samples (n = 273) collected from infants at enrollment (Visit 1 and Visit 2) were analyzed via 1H NMR spectroscopy and UPLC-MS. B A time-dependent fecal metabolome development was observed (PERMANOVA, R2 = 0.07, F = 10.07, p < 0.001). C Fecal metabolic profiles differed between groups at Visit 2. D Pairwise PLS-DA models of the log-transformed integrated peak areas were constructed to investigate metabolites driving group differences at 3 months. VIP plots comparing Reference versus Control (CER 0.06), Reference versus Test (CER 0.02), and Test versus Control (CER 0.23) highlighted key differences. Reference infants excreted greater amounts of human milk oligosaccharides compared to the formula-fed groups, which presented greater amounts of malonate, orotate, cadaverine, and uracil