Fig. 5

Microbiota and vitiligo-related regulation of fecal, serum, and skin metabolites. A Schematic diagram illustrating the targeted quantitative metabolomics analysis conducted on fecal, serum, and skin tissue from non-induction and vitiligo mice treated with water and ABX (created with BioRender.com). B Bar chart showing the relative concentration of metabolite classes in fecal, serum, and skin tissue from non-induction (n = 6) and vitiligo mice (n = 6). C Volcano plots depicting differentially abundant metabolites from targeted quantitative metabolomics analysis of fecal (left: n = 6, 6), serum (middle: n = 6, 6), and skin tissue (right: n = 6, 6) samples from control and vitiligo mice. x-axis: − log10(FC). y-axis: − log10(P). Purple, upregulated; green, downregulated. D Venn diagram of differentially abundant metabolites from fecal (67), serum (99), and skin (40) samples, P < 0.05; intercept (8). E Heatmap of intercepted differentially abundant metabolites in skin samples from non-induction and vitiligo mice treated with water (n = 6, 6) and ABX (n = 3, 3). Each column represents a biological replicate. F Bar chart showing the relative concentration of 2-phenylpropionate, hippuric acid, and indoleacetic acid in fecal, serum, and skin samples from non-induction (n = 6) and vitiligo mice (n = 6). G Quantification of 2-phenylpropionate, hippuric acid, and indoleacetic acid in skin tissues of vitiligo mice treated with water (n = 6) and ABX (n = 3). H Quantification of 2-phenylpropionate, hippuric acid, and indoleacetic acid in fecal samples of vitiligo mice treated with water (n = 6) and ABX (n = 3). Statistical significance was determined using (G and H) Mann–Whitney U test. *P < 0.05