Fig. 5

Fp.OMVs bind to specific bacteria and stimulate their growth. a Comparative analysis of Simpson index, Goods coverage index, Shannon index, and observed species index between the Fp.OMVs + PEDV (n = 15) and PEDV (n = 15) groups. b PCA analysis based on weighted UniFrac distances to identify microbial structural changes. c Top 20 species at the species level between the Fp.OMVs + PEDV and PEDV groups. d LEfSe-based differential species abundance analysis (Faecalibacterium prausnitzii, Prevotellamassilia timonensis, and Limosilactobacillus reuteri). e Bacterial phylogenetic branches, with different circle layers from inner to outer representing seven taxonomic levels: domain, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species; each node represents a species classification at that level. f LEfSe analysis (LDA score > 3). g Co-localization results of DIL-labeled Fp.OMVs with Limosilactobacillus reuteri, Prevotellamassilia timonensis, and Faecalibacterium prausnitzii detected by laser confocal microscopy. Growth measurements of Limosilactobacillus reuteri (h) (n = 3), Prevotellamassilia timonensis (i) (n = 3), and Faecalibacterium prausnitzii (j) (n = 3) pre-treated with different concentrations of Fp.OMVs, Fp.OMVs-L, 10 µg/mL; Fp.OMVs-M, 50; Fp.OMVs-H, 100 µg/mL. Flow cytometry combined analysis of DIL-labeled Fp.OMVs with Limosilactobacillus reuteri (l, m, k), Prevotellamassilia timonensis (o, p, n), and Faecalibacterium prausnitzii (r, s, q); results presented using scatter plots, statistical charts, and histograms. Results are presented as means ± SD, with statistical significance calculated by t tests for two groups and one-way ANOVA for four groups. **P < 0.01; ***P < 0.001; ****P < 0.0001