Fig. 4

Fp.OMVs function depends on the gut microbiota. a Creation of a piglet intestinal microbiota depletion model; piglet small intestines were collected on day 5 post-infection to evaluate intestinal damage in groups Abx + Fp.OMVs + PEDV (n = 6), Fp.OMVs + PEDV (n = 6), PEDV (n = 6), and Control (n = 6). Comparative analysis of survival (b), weight loss (c), and diarrhea (f) in each piglet group. d Analysis of epithelial cell shedding from pathological sections. e Scanning electron microscopy analysis of jejunal villi; images taken at 10 × , 200 × , and 500 × magnifications. g Comparison of histopathological changes (H&E staining); images taken at 20 × and 100 × magnifications. h Alterations in the appearance of the intestines. i Immunofluorescence analysis of the intestines using PEDV-S; images taken at 100 × magnification. j Assessment of relative PEDV expression levels in the intestines. k Characterization of viral content in intestinal epithelial cells using PEDV-N. Results are presented as means ± SD, with statistical significance determined by t tests for two groups and one-way ANOVA for three and four groups. *P < 0.05; **P < 0.01; ****P < 0.0001. Panel a was created with BioRender.com