Fig. 2

Diversity and assembly of Astragalus seed-associated microbiome. a Chao1 diversity index of bacterial and fungal communities in germinated and ungerminated seeds across different time and compartments. b Principal coordinate analysis (PCoA) of seed-associated bacterial and fungal communities based on the Bray–Curtis distances, with PERMANOVA to test differences. c βNTI value of bacterial and fungal communities of germinated and ungerminated seeds across the different time and compartments. d Composition of seed-associated bacterial community at genus levels. e Composition of seed-associated fungal community at genus levels. Volcano plots indicate taxa (ASV) with differences in bacterial (f) and fungal (g) communities associated with germinated and ungerminated seeds at different time and compartments. GE4d: Germinated seed endosphere on Day 4, UE4d: Ungerminated seed endosphere on Day 4, GE10d: Germinated seed endosphere on Day 10, UE10d: Ungerminated seed endosphere on Day 10, GS4d: Germinated seed spermosphere on Day 4, US4d: Ungerminated seed spermosphere on Day 4, GS10d: Germinated seed spermosphere on Day 10, US10d: Ungerminated seed spermosphere on Day 10. Differences were analyzed using Wilcoxon rank-sum test. Asterisks represent distinct significant differences (*, p < 0.05; **, p < 0.01; ***, p < 0.001)